受到研究设计和样本量的限制,研究者不能将权力有效地操作成职业类别,而这恰恰是检验“再分配者”与“直接生产者”在市场改革过程中谁更得益的关键指标。总体而言,城乡干部的相对收入在改革初期是下降的(Nee ,1989;Walder,1990:135-156)。不过,在“地方政府法团主义”(local state corporatism )(Oi,1992)起决定作用的地区,农村干部可以从盈利的乡镇企业中获益(Peng,1992;Lin ,1995;Lin &Chen ,1999:145-170)。在20世纪80年代中期的城市,拥有行政权力或政治资本的人也仍然是赢家(Walder ,1992;Bian &Logan ,1996;Zhou ,2000)。中国社会科学院1988年和1995年对家庭收入的全国性调查,其发现也基本与以上分析一致(Griffin &Zhao ,1992;Khan et al .,1992;Zhao,1993:74-92;Khan &Riskin,1998;Parish &Michelson,1996;Xie &Hannum,1996;Tang &Parish ,2000;Hauser &Xie,2001;Bian &Zhang,2002)。
尽管城市居民的住房差异是社会主义制度下阶层差异的一个主要方面(Szelényi ,1983;Lee ,1988),但对改革进程中城市住房的研究仍显薄弱。在毛泽东时代,城市居民以享有低租金住房为特征(租金约占家庭收入的1%到2%)。住房主要是通过工作单位进行分配的(Whyte &Parish,1984:77-79;Logan &Bian ,1993;Bian et al .,1997:223-250)。
这种住房分配模式有许多意料之外的后果(Tang &Parish,2000:37),住房改革就是针对这些后果逐渐推进的。1988年后数次提高了租金,然后单位与住房分配相分离,最终实现了住房的商品化和私有化(Bian et al .,1997:223-250;Davis ,2000:245-260),虽然各级政府仍然是住房的主要投资者和建设者。国家有关部门在1998年下文要求所有新建住房必须按市场价买卖,这标志着长达50年的福利分房制度的终结(Jiang ,2000:192-203)。在2000年,北京或上海的一套100平方米住宅平均价值60到80万元人民币,相当于一个普通工人30到40年工资收入之和。经济购买力稍低的家庭可以购买经济适用房,或以优惠价买下原单位分配的住房。住房分配体制的改革意味着,对于租房者而言,拥有住房产权的那些人是经济改革的“赢家”。因而,是否拥有住房产权,也就成为改革时期阶层差异和阶层分化的重要指标。
住房产权。这是根据问卷H21“房屋来源”一题的内容构建的变量,区分出被访者的住房是“有产权”的,还是“租的”。如表1所示,2000年,72%的城市居民户拥有所住房屋的产权。住房商品化改革之初的1990年,这一比率仅仅是24%(Bian et al .,1997:223-250)。住房产权私有化程度亦受城市环境的影响。在北京、天津、上海三大直辖市和计划单列市(大连、青岛、宁波、厦门、深圳和珠海),产权私有比例是54%;省会城市大约在60%到70%之间;而县级市的比例则高于70%.大体的趋势是,城市的级别越高,越受中央政府直接管辖,住房产权私有化程度越低(见表1)。
指标。表1显示,全国城市人均住房面积约25平方米。相比于80年代国务院规定的8平方米的人均住房水平,有了巨大的增长。城市住房市场化的发展功不可没,但住户的住房面积差异亦很突出。以变异系数(Coefficient of variation,标准差除以均值)来测量,住房的变异系数大约在0176(19118P24192)的水平,大大高于1980年代末的水平(Bian,1994:199)。但是,各地区和各级别城市之间平均住房面积的差异不大。
表3对不同职业类别的分析(以产业工人为参照组)表明,户主为管理精英和专业精英的家庭有更高的比率拥有住房产权。如,共产党各级组织负责人的拥有产权的机率比,是产业工人家庭户的2倍(exp B =21002),以后依次为其他党派和社会团体负责人(11827)、政府机关负责人(11668)、事业单位负责人(11668)、企业负责人(11435)。在专业精英类别中显现出一定的内部差异性:仍然以产业工人为参照,在商业领域的专业人员为其11423倍,然后依次为工程技术人员(11325)、科学研究人员(11262)、政法人员(11204),均显著高于产业工人。但在其他领域的专业人员并没有体现出显著的优势。另一个意外发现是,教育界的专业人员住房产权拥有竟比产业工人还低1313%(01133)。在非精英群体(不包括农民)中,行政办事人员的住房产权拥有率最高,是产业工人的11303倍,其次为通讯业的办事人员(11203)、商业人员(01744)、政法系统人员(01818)。以上结果说明,在房屋产权的拥有上,我们的研究假设1得到证明。总体上,管理精英比专业精英更有可能拥有住房产权,这也证明了研究假设3,同时否证了研究假设2.
管理精英、专业精英和非精英群体间在住房产权上的显著差异,给我们提出了这样一个问题:他们是否从不同途经获得住房产权?在房屋改革之初,仅24%的城市居民户拥有住房产权(Bian et al1,1997:223-250),各类精英在当时亦很少拥有住房产权(Logan&Bian ,1993)。
Bian,Yanjie 1994,Work and Inequality in Urban China.Albany ,NY :StateUniversity of New York Press.
——2002,“Chinese Social Stratification and Social Mobility.”Annual Reviewof Sociology 28.
Bian,Yanjie &Zhanxin Zhang 2002,“Marketization and Income Distribution inUrban China :1988and 1995.”Research on Social Stratification and Mobility 19.
Bian,Yanjie &John R.Logan 1996,“Market Transition and the Persistence ofPower :The Changing Stratification System in Urban China.”American SociologicalReview 61.
Bian,Yanjie ,John Logan,Hanlong Lu ,Yunkang Pan &Ying Guan 1997,“Work Units and Housing Reform in Two Chinese Cities.”in Danwei :The ChineseWorkunit in Historical and Comparative Perspective,(eds.)by Xiaobu Lu &ElizabethPerry.New York :M.E.Sharpe.
Cao ,Yang &Victor Nee 2000,“Comment :Controversies and Evidence in theMarket Transition Debate.”
American Journal of Sociology 105.China-GSS 2004,“Unpublished Document onthe China General Social Survey Project .”Survey Research Center,Division ofSocial Science,Hong Kong University of Science and Technology.
Davis ,Debora S.1999,“Self2Employment in Shanghai :A Research Note.”China Quaterly 157.
Djilas,M.1957,The New Class:An Analysis of the Communist System of Power.New York:Praeger.
Fraser,David 2000,“Inventing Oasis :Luxury Housing Advertisements and ReconfiguringDomestic Space in Shanghai .”In The Consumer Revolution in Urban China ,(ed.)by D.S.Davis.Berkeley,Calif .:University of California Press.
Gerber,Theodore P.&Michael Hout 1998,“More Shock than Therapy :MarketTransition,Employment ,and Income in Russia,1991-1995.”American Journalof Sociology 104.
Griffin ,K.&R.Zhao 1992,Chinese Household Income Project ,1988(MRDF).New York,NY:Hunter College Academic Computing Services.
Hauser,S.M.&Y.Xie 2001,“Temporal and Regional Variation in EarningsInequality:Urban China in Transition Between 1988and 1995.”Paper Presentedat the RC28Conference on Social Stratification and Mobility.Berkeley,August.
Howe,Christopher 1968,“The Supply and Administration of Housing in MainlandChina :The Case of Shanghai .”The China Quarterly 10.
Jiang ,W.R.2000,“China ‘s Housing Construction and Housing Reform :1998-1999.”In 1999:Analyses and Forecasts about Social Situations in China ,(eds.)by Xin Ru et al .Beijing:Social Science Documents Press.
Khan,A.R.,K.Griffin ,C.Riskin &R.W.Zhao 1992,“Household Incomeand Its Distribution in China.”The China Quarterly 132.
Khan,Azizur Rahman &Carl Riskin 1997,“Income and Inequality in China:Composition ,Growth and Distribution of Household Income,1988to 1995.”TheChina Quarterly 154.
Lee ,Y.F.1988,“The Urban Housing Problem in China.”The China Quarterly115.
Lin ,Nan 1995,“Local Market Socialism:Local Corporatism in Action inRural China.”Theory and Society 24.
Lin ,N.&J .C.Chen 1999,“Local Elites as Officials and Owners:Shareholdingand Property Rights Transformation in Daqiuzhuang Industry.”In Property Rightsand Economic Reform in China,(eds.)
by J .Oi &A.Walder.Stanford,California :Stanford Univ.Press.
Logan ,John R.&David Moloch 1987,Urban Fortunes :Political Economy ofPlace.Berkeley ,CA :University of California Press.
Logan ,John R.&Fuqin Bian 1999,“Housing Inequality in Urban China in the1990s :Market and Nonmarket Mechanisms.”International Journal of Urban and RegionalResearch 23(March ).
Logan ,John R.&Yanjie Bian 1993,“Access to Community Resources in a ChineseCity.”Social Forces 72.
Lyons ,T.P.1997,“Intraprovincial Disparities in Post-Mao China :AMultidimensionalAnalysis of Fujian Province.”Journal of Developing Areas 32.
Nee ,Victor 1989,“A Theory of Market Transition :From Redistribution toMarket in State Socialism.”
American Sociology Review 54.
——1991,“Social Inequalities in Reforming State Socialism:Between Redistributionand Markets in State Socialism.”American Sociological Review 56.
——1996,“The Emergence of a Market Society :Changing Mechanisms of Stratificationin China.”
American Journal of Sociology 101.
Nee ,Victor &Rebecca Matthews 1996,“Market Transition and Societal Transformationin Reforming State Socialism.”Annual Review of Sociology 22.
Nee ,Victor &Yang Cao 1999,“Path Dependent Societal Transformation:Stratificationin Hybrid Mixed Economy.”Theory and Society 28.
Oi,Jane 1992,“Fiscal Reform and the Economic Foundations of Local StateCorporatism in China.”World Politics 45.
Parish,William L.&Ethan Michelson 1996,“Politics and Markets:Dual Transformations.”American Journal of Sociology 101.
Peng,Yusheng 1992,“Wage Determination in Rural and Urban China :A Comparisonof Public and Private Industrial Sectors.”American Sociological Review 57.
SSB (State Statistical Bureau of China )2000,Statistical Yearbook.Beijing:SSB Press.
Szelényi ,Ivan 1978,“Social Inequalities in State Socialist RedistributiveEconomies.”International Journal of Comparative Sociology 19.
——1983,Urban Inequalities Under State Socialism.New York :Oxford UniversityPress.
Tang,W.&W.L.Parish 2000,Chinese Urban Life Under Reform:The ChangingSocial Contract .New York:Cambridge.
Walder,Andrew G.1986,Communist Neo2Traditionalism :Work and Authorityin Chinese Industry .Berkeley,CA.:University of California Press.
——1990,“Economic Reform and Income Distribution in Tianjin,1976-1986.”In Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen,(ed.)by D.Davis,E.F.Vogel,Cambridge ,MA :Harvard Univ.Press.
——1992,“Property Rights and Stratification in Socialist RedistributiveEconomies.”American Sociology Review 57.
——1995,“Local Governments as Industrial Firms :An Organizational Analysisof China‘s Transitional Economy.”American Journal of Sociology 101.
Wang,Shaoguang &Angang Hu 1999,The Political Economy of Uneven Development:The Case of China.Armonk,New York :M.E.Sharpe.
Whyte ,Martin King &William L.Parish,Jr.1984,Urban Life in ContemporaryChina.Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
Xie ,Yu &Emily Hannum 1996,“Regional Variation in Earnings Inequalityin Reform2Era Urban China.”American Journal of Sociology 101.
Zhao,Renwei 1993,“Three Features of the Distribution of Income during theTransition to Reform.”In Chinese Household Income Project ,1988(MRDF ),(eds.)by Griffin ,K.&R.Zhao.New York :Academic Computing Services.
Zhou,Xueguang &Suhomlinova O.2001,“Redistribution Under State Socialism:A USSR and PRC Comparison.”Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 18.
Zhou,Xueguang 2000,“Economic Transformation and Income Inequality in UrbanChina :Evidence from a Panel Data.”American Journal of Sociology 105.
作者单位:香港科技大学(边燕杰)
中国国家统计局(刘勇利)
Key Words:Social Stratification ,Home Ownership ,and Quality of Living:Evidencefrom China‘s Fifth Census
Author:Bian Yanjie &Liu Yongli
Abstract:The research of China‘s changing social stratification system hasfocused almost entirely on the analysis of income and occupational mobility.Thispaper instead draws attention to housing distribution ,an aspect of social stratificationthat has increasing importance to life chances under a market2driven system.Theurban portion of China’s 2000Population and Housing Census is analyzed to examinevariation by occupation in(1)home ownership ,(2)home space ,and(3)home quality.As of 2000,72%of the urban households are private home owners ,which reveal a 48%jump from the 24%in 1990.Households whose heads hold an eliteoccupation are significantly more likely to be in access to private homes than otherhouseholds,and they show advantages of purchasing housing units previously rented ,economically affordable homes ,and,especially ,newly constructed homes witha competitive market price.On the other hand ,home space and quality also haveimproved tremendously since the early 1990s.Households headed by managerial andprofessional elites are in access to large home space and better quality than arehouseholds headed by non2elites.These findings are in support of a view of powerpersistence ,and informative about the fact that societal stability and continuityin social stratification are behind a successful economic reform program.