Abstract:China ‘s class structure is changing dramatically in the wake ofpost-1978market-oriented economic reforms.The creation of a mixed “market-socialist”economy has eroded the institutional bases of a cadre-dominated social hierarchyand created conditions for a new pattern of social stratification.Although conditionsremain dynamic,results of a 1998urban survey that measured strength and diversityof social ties among 400households in Tianjin,Shanghai ,Wuhan,and Shenzhendocumented networks of social exchange that identify a class structure distinctfrom the cadre-dominated social hierarchy of the Mao era.In particular ,analysisof visiting during the Lunar New Year celebration suggests an urban society simultaneouslydivided along two axes:one by economic success in the more privatized economyand one by distinctions in political authority at the workplace.Thus contrary tothose who privilege market transactions as the primary engine for creating a newclass hierarchy ,we conclude that to understand processes of social stratificationone needs theories and methods that work simultaneously with multiple dynamics ofclass differentiation rather than presuming linear hierarchy.
1978年以来中国的市场化和私有化转型,为一种新的社会阶层结构的形成创造了条件。在实行市场化改革之前,社会分层的体制以高度政治化为特征:它以国家的经济再分配权力为基础,把家庭或个人划分为泾渭分明的不同身份团体;而且身份一旦划定,阶层间很难实现代际和代内流动(Whyte ,1975;Kraus ,1981;Whyte and Parish,1984;Davis ,1985;Walder,1986)。1978年后建立的“社会主义市场经济”,不但从根本上动摇了以往身份等级体制的制度基础(Bian,2002),同时推动着一种基于市场差异的新社会分层机制的形成(Davis ,1995)。随着新体制逐渐成形,我们越来越清晰地分辨出各职业团体形成一些稳定的行为方式和资源积累模式,并由此来分析社会结构特征及其运行机制。
再分配经济体制下(Szelenyi,1978),政治权力和地位决定着人们满足物质利益的特权(Walder,1985),这使得国家干部既不同于工人(李强,1995),也有别于企业经理和专业技术人员(Davis ,2000)。因此,改革开放早期的研究者推测,更多的市场交换和产权的私有化将削弱干部的特权和利益(Nee ,1989)。基于现有的相关经验数据的研究结论并不一致:有人发现干部享有的经济报偿在下降,但也有人发现对政治权力和地位的回报维持不变(相关评论见Nee and Mathews ,1996;Nee and Cao ,2000;Bian,2002)。本文并不打算讨论市场转型中干部的地位及其回报问题,而试图分析市场化和私有化是如何塑造不同职业阶层的社会网络。我们讨论一个更根本的社会学问题:社会网络与阶层形成之间的关系。
地位分析从物质报酬与政治权力的角度来确定阶层地位的高下和归属。但是很多理论家和研究者,如Giddens (1980)、Wright and Cho(1992)、Erickson(1996,2001)和Portes(2000)等,主张以更宽广的视野进行阶层分析。“关系分析”把研究视野不仅仅囿于社会地位本身,而是进一步拓展到社会网络,探索各种社会地位之间的关系和社会距离。正如Portes(2000:259)所说:
从社会网络的角度,可以设想三种抽象的交往模式。第一种是“阶层隔离模式”:一个阶层的成员只同本阶层的人交往,导致阶层之间严重的社会隔离。这种模式存在的一个可能原因是,政治、经济和社会资源严格按照社会阶层的界线进行分配,使阶层之间的交往不能产生任何收益甚至有害。比如,在“文革”期间可看到这种情形:当时属于“红五类”的人(工人、贫下中农、革命干部、军人和烈属)因为害怕受牵连而不与“黑五类”(地、富、反、坏、右)交往(Whyte and Parish,1984)。在社会经济和政治迅速转型的动荡环境中,这种政治化的阶层隔离有可能被新的隔离机制所取代,比如利益相同的职业团体结成联盟,以确保外人无法侵占他们的资源和特权。这种结盟所导致的阶层隔离结构被称为社会断裂(孙立平,2002)。
假如3:二元精英的假设。非体力劳动的白领职业可能并不构成一个统一的阶层,他们的拜年活动存在内部分化。对当代资本主义社会的研究表明,专业技能虽然能为人们提供就业机会,使他们获得很高的社会声望,但这并不带来对资产的控制权或管理权(Wright,1997)。在中国,技能和权力是十分不同的资源:拥有技能和声望的专业技术人员,是一个非常不同于行政官员和企业经营管理者的精英集体。后者不但拥有社会声望,更重要的是他们还拥有政治、行政和管理的权力,这为他们提供了一些专业人士得不到的物质好处(Walder,1995;Walder et al,2000)。二元精英模式意味着,专业人士(如科研人员、大学教授、中小学教师、医务人员等)可能形成一个特殊的阶层,与体力劳动者或其它非体力劳动者相比,他们可能具有自己独特的拜年模式。
在记录拜年者的职业阶层时,我们使用了以职业为基础的地位法(position generator),这是为测量以个体为中心的网络结构而发明的(Lin and Dumin ,1986)。就像对职业声望的调查一样,这种测量也只能纳入少数职业类型,但它们应该能从声望、社会经济地位或掌握资源的角度覆盖大部分职业。我们根据自己的研究目的,初步选出20种在职业声望上高低不同、且有代表性的职业。同时为了方便比较,被选取的职业基本限于其声望已经有一定研究积累的职业(Lin and Xie ,1988;Bian,1996)。访问中,我们要求受访家庭确认他们的拜年交往者中是否属于20种职业类别中的任何一种,有7种职业类型的记录人数过少,于是被并入相似职业类别,由此得到表1中的13种职业。③这些选定的职业虽然不代表全部城市职业,但它们涵盖了城市职业的80%和作为我们样本来源的四个城市中88%的职业(见表1)。而且,这些职业体现出各阶层在权力和专业技能上的分化形态。因为资料的限制,我们没有、也无法为这份职业清单补充上是否拥有产权这一因素。
需要注意的是,如果两个职业被归为同一阶层的话,那么我们设定他们与其他职业或阶层的交往呈现相同的模式。反映在模型中,式(1)的■项的差异仅存在于阶层间的职业交往上,而对于属于同一阶层的职业,他们的■项相同。这是Goodman (1981)同质性模型(相关评论见Wasserman and Faust ,1994)的一个应用。Breiger and Mohr(2004)指出,同质性模型实际上就是网络研究中“结构等价”概念的数学模型(相关评论见Wasserman andFaust ,1994)。这正符合我们研究的需要,为我们前面讨论的阶层和网络关系提供了进一步分析的手段。我们的每一个研究假设,都可以通过比较特定模型(Fij )的期望频数在多大程度上与表2的观察值相一致而加以评估:如果模型的期望值不同于观察值,那么说明该模型与社会现实不符,也就并非是“真”模型,故而该模型所代表的研究假设不成立。
*原文(英文稿)为香港中文大学中国研究服务中心四十周年“中国现况”学术研讨会(2004年1月6—7日)的宣读论文。早先的版本曾提交以下会议:2003年2月12—16日墨西哥坎昆的桑贝尔特社会网络分析国际会议;2003年8月15—19日亚特兰大召开的美国社会学学会年会。Henry Luce Foundation 为本文所分析的调查提供了资助。我们感谢两位匿名审稿人和Social Forces 主编所作的评论,感谢李煜先生在数据整理上给予的帮助。
(伊洪译,李煜、边燕杰校)
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